Assignment Code: MPS-002/Asst/TMA/2023-24

Course Code: MPS-002

Assignment Name: International Relations: Theory and Problems

Year: 2023-2024

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

Answer five questions in all, selecting at least two questions from each section. Each question is to be answered in about 500 words. Each question carries 20 marks.

SECTION- I

Q1) What are the different theoretical approaches to Regionalism? Explain.

Ans) Regionalism, as a phenomenon shaping political, economic, and social interactions among countries within a specific geographical area, is analysed through various theoretical lenses. Different theoretical approaches provide insights into the motivations, processes, and implications of regional integration. Three prominent theoretical frameworks: neofunctionalism, intergovernmentalism, and constructivism.

Neofunctionalism

Neofunctionalism, associated with scholars like Ernst B. Haas, emphasizes the role of functional spillover in regional integration. According to this perspective, integration in one area spills over to others, creating a momentum that fosters deeper cooperation. Neofunctionalism envisions a gradual transfer of sovereignty from member states to regional institutions as states recognize the benefits of collaboration. The European Union's evolution, especially in the early stages, reflects neofunctionalism dynamics with the establishment of common institutions and policies.

Intergovernmentalism

Contrary to neofunctionalism, intergovernmentalism posits that states remain the primary actors in regional integration processes. This approach, championed by scholars like Stanley Hoffmann, contends that states, driven by national interests, control the integration agenda. Intergovernmental negotiations and inter-state agreements form the core of regional cooperation, and the role of supranational institutions is limited. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is often cited as an example where member states maintain a significant degree of sovereignty.

Constructivism

Constructivism, as articulated by scholars like Alexander Wendt, introduces ideational factors into the study of regionalism. This approach emphasizes the role of ideas, norms, and identities in shaping regional cooperation. Constructivism contends that shared beliefs and social constructions influence state behaviour. Regional identity, cultural affinities, and norm diffusion become crucial in explaining the dynamics of regional integration. The African Union's emphasis on Pan-Africanism and shared historical experiences exemplifies the influence of constructivist factors.

Integration vs. Cooperation

While neofunctionalism and intergovernmentalism focus on integration, constructivism accommodates both integration and cooperation. Integration implies a transfer of authority to supranational entities, while cooperation entails states working together without necessarily ceding sovereignty. The choice between integration and cooperation often depends on the preferences of member states and the nature of the regional organization.

Contemporary Regionalism

Contemporary regionalism often involves a combination of these theoretical perspectives. Regional organizations may start as platforms for cooperation driven by immediate economic or security concerns and later evolve toward deeper integration. The European Union, despite having intergovernmental elements, also reflects neo functionalist dynamics, especially in the areas of common policies and institutions.

Q2) Discuss the evolution of non –proliferation of nuclear weapons in the post –cold war era.

Ans) The post-Cold War era witnessed significant shifts in global geopolitics, and the issue of non-proliferation of nuclear weapons underwent notable developments. Several key factors, including the dissolution of the Soviet Union, emerging nuclear challenges, and evolving diplomatic strategies, shaped the trajectory of nuclear non-proliferation during this period.

Dissolution of the Soviet Union

The end of the Cold War marked a transformative moment in global affairs. The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 had profound implications for nuclear non-proliferation. The newly independent states, once part of the Soviet Union, inherited nuclear arsenals, raising concerns about the control and security of these weapons. Efforts were undertaken to secure and dismantle nuclear weapons in Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan through diplomatic initiatives like the Budapest Memorandum.

Proliferation Challenges in the 1990s

The 1990s saw a surge in proliferation challenges, with North Korea and Iraq becoming focal points. North Korea's pursuit of nuclear weapons, evident in its withdrawal from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 2003, posed a significant threat. Similarly, Iraq's clandestine nuclear program, as revealed in the aftermath of the Gulf War, underscored the need for enhanced international mechanisms to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons.

Strengthening the Non-Proliferation Regime

Efforts were made to strengthen the existing non-proliferation regime, primarily embodied in the NPT. The indefinite extension of the NPT in 1995 reaffirmed the commitment of member states to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) negotiations, initiated in the 1990s, aimed to curb nuclear testing, although its entry into force faced challenges.

India and Pakistan Nuclear Tests (1998)

A significant setback to non-proliferation efforts occurred in 1998 when both India and Pakistan conducted nuclear tests. These tests challenged the established norms and triggered concerns about the effectiveness of the non-proliferation regime. The international community responded with sanctions, but the tests underscored the limitations of existing mechanisms in preventing nuclear weapons development.

New Strategic Realities

The post-Cold War era also witnessed a re-evaluation of strategic realities. The concept of nuclear deterrence persisted, with nuclear-armed states emphasizing the role of nuclear weapons in ensuring national security. The evolving security landscape led to debates about the relevance and fairness of the existing non-proliferation architecture.

Iran Nuclear Deal (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action - JCPOA)

In the 21st century, the Iranian nuclear program emerged as a focal point of international concern. Negotiations culminated in the JCPOA in 2015, an agreement aimed at limiting Iran's nuclear activities in exchange for sanctions relief. However, the subsequent U.S. withdrawal from the deal in 2018 and Iran's subsequent breaches added complexities to the non-proliferation landscape.

Contemporary Challenges and Opportunities

The contemporary non-proliferation landscape is characterized by both challenges and opportunities. North Korea's continued nuclear pursuits, concerns about emerging technologies, and the need for disarmament efforts present ongoing challenges.

Q3) Briefly explain the motives and the methods adopted by the terrorist to perpetuate violence.

Ans) Overview of the Motives and Methods Adopted by Terrorists:

Motives

Political Grievances:

1. Many terrorist groups are driven by political motives, seeking to address perceived injustices, oppression, or marginalization of specific ethnic or political groups.

2. Separatist movements, such as the Basque Homeland and Freedom (ETA) in Spain or the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), often resort to terrorism to advance their political agendas.

Religious Extremism:

1. Religious ideologies, particularly radical interpretations of Islam, have motivated several terrorist groups, such as al-Qaeda and the Islamic State (ISIS).

2. The desire to establish a particular form of governance based on religious principles often fuels acts of terrorism.

Ethnic and Nationalistic Goals:

1. Some terrorist organizations pursue ethnic or nationalistic goals, aiming to establish an independent state or address perceived grievances against a dominant ethnic or national group.

2. The Irish Republican Army (IRA) sought to end British rule in Northern Ireland to establish a united Ireland.

   
   

Social and Economic Injustice:

1. Terrorism can also emerge as a response to perceived social or economic injustices, with groups seeking to address issues like poverty, inequality, or corruption.

2. The Shining Path in Peru, for example, claimed to fight against perceived social injustices.

Anti-Globalization Sentiments:

1) Some terrorist acts are driven by opposition to globalization, with groups targeting symbols of multinational corporations or international institutions.

Methods

1. Bombings: Bombings, whether suicide bombings or attacks using improvised explosive devices (IEDs), are common tactics employed by terrorists. These attacks aim to cause mass casualties and instil fear.

2. Kidnappings and Hostage-Taking: Kidnappings and hostage-taking are used to draw attention to specific demands or force concessions from governments or organizations. Notable examples include the activities of Boko Haram in Nigeria.

3. Assassinations: Targeted assassinations of political or religious figures are employed to eliminate perceived threats or to intimidate opponents. The assassination of political leaders by the Red Brigades in Italy is an example.

4. Hijackings: Hijackings of airplanes or other vehicles are carried out to make political or ideological statements and often involve negotiations for the release of hostages.

5. Cyberterrorism: In the digital age, terrorists also engage in cyber-attacks to disrupt critical infrastructure, compromise security, and spread propaganda.

6. Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear (CBRN) Threats: Some terrorist groups aspire to use weapons of mass destruction, including chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear materials, to cause widespread harm.

7. Guerrilla Warfare: Guerrilla tactics involve hit-and-run attacks, ambushes, and skirmishes with security forces. Such tactics are common among insurgent groups engaged in prolonged conflicts.

SECTION- II

Write a short note on each part of the following questions in about 250 words:

Q4. a) Globalisation

Ans) Globalization is a multifaceted phenomenon that encompasses economic, political, social, and cultural dimensions. It is characterized by the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of nations, facilitated by advancements in communication, transportation, and technology. Here's a brief overview of the key aspects of globalization:

Economic Dimension

One of the central features of globalization is the integration of national economies into a single global economic system. This integration is facilitated by the flow of goods, services, capital, and information across borders. International trade agreements, multinational corporations, and global supply chains are manifestations of economic globalization. While it has led to increased economic growth and access to goods and services, it has also raised concerns about inequality and exploitation.

Political Dimension

Globalization has implications for the political landscape as well. International organizations such as the United Nations, World Bank, and International Monetary Fund play pivotal roles in shaping global governance. Additionally, regional alliances and treaties foster diplomatic collaboration. However, globalization also raises questions about national sovereignty and the ability of individual nations to regulate global forces.

Social Dimension

On a societal level, globalization has led to the exchange of ideas, values, and cultural practices. Increased connectivity through social media and the internet has created a globalized cultural space. While this cultural interchange promotes diversity and understanding, it also raises concerns about cultural homogenization and the erosion of local identities.

Technological Dimension

Technological advancements, particularly in communication and transportation, have been instrumental in driving globalization. The internet, smartphones, and rapid transportation systems have shrunk the world, enabling instantaneous communication and the swift movement of people and goods. This technological dimension has transformed industries, communication patterns, and lifestyles.

Environmental Dimension

Globalization has far-reaching environmental implications. The increased movement of goods and people contributes to environmental challenges such as climate change, deforestation, and pollution. Collaborative global efforts are essential to address these challenges and promote sustainable development.

Challenges and Opportunities

While globalization presents opportunities for economic growth, technological innovation, and cultural exchange, it also poses challenges. Rising income inequality, exploitation of labor, and the vulnerability of economies to global shocks are issues that need attention. Striking a balance between the benefits and drawbacks of globalization is crucial for fostering a sustainable and inclusive global order.

Q4. b) Critique of Orientalism

Ans) Orientalism, a term popularized by scholar Edward Said in his seminal work, "Orientalism" (1978), refers to a Western academic tradition that portrayed the East, particularly the Middle East and Asia, as exotic, inferior, and in need of Western intervention. The critique of Orientalism is a significant intellectual discourse that challenges the biases inherent in this approach.

Essence of the Critique

The critique of Orientalism centers on the examination of Western scholarly representations of the East, which are often characterized by stereotypes, generalizations, and a Eurocentric worldview. Said argued that Western scholars, through their writings, reinforced colonial power structures and justified imperialist endeavours by constructing a distorted and homogenized image of the Orient.

Oversimplification and Generalization

One key aspect of the critique is the tendency of Orientalist scholars to oversimplify and generalize diverse cultures, traditions, and histories within the East. The rich tapestry of civilizations and the complexity of social structures were often reduced to monolithic and essentialized portrayals that perpetuated stereotypes.

Power Dynamics and Colonial Implications

The critique also delves into the power dynamics inherent in Orientalist scholarship. Said contended that Orientalism was not merely an academic pursuit, but a tool employed by Western powers to dominate and control the East. By constructing an image of the Orient as backward and in need of Western guidance, scholars indirectly legitimized colonial interventions.

Orientalism as a Discourse of Power

The critique goes beyond individual scholars and identifies Orientalism as a discourse of power that permeated various institutions, including literature, art, and policymaking. It shaped not only academic narratives but also public perceptions, influencing how the East was viewed and, consequently, how policies were formulated.

Q5a) Environmental Approaches

Ans) Environmental Approaches: Addressing Challenges for Sustainable Futures

Holistic Sustainability

One key aspect of environmental approaches is their emphasis on holistic sustainability. Rather than viewing environmental issues in isolation, these approaches recognize the interconnectedness of ecological, social, and economic systems. This interconnected perspective encourages comprehensive solutions that consider not only the immediate environmental impacts but also the long-term consequences on human well-being and planetary health.

Conservation and Preservation

Environmental approaches often involve a balance between conservation and preservation. Conservation focuses on sustainable use and management of natural resources, promoting responsible practices to prevent depletion. Preservation, on the other hand, advocates for protecting certain areas from human interference entirely, recognizing the intrinsic value of untouched ecosystems. Striking the right balance between these two approaches is crucial for maintaining ecological integrity.

Ecosystem-Based Management

A central tenet of environmental approaches is the adoption of ecosystem-based management.

This approach recognizes ecosystems as dynamic entities with interconnected components. Rather than focusing solely on individual species or resources, ecosystem-based management considers the health and functioning of entire ecosystems, acknowledging that the well-being of species and habitats is interdependent.

Innovation and Technology

Environmental approaches leverage innovation and technology to address environmental challenges. From renewable energy solutions to advanced monitoring systems, technological advancements play a vital role in mitigating environmental impacts and promoting sustainable practices. Integrating cutting-edge technologies with environmental policies enhances our capacity to monitor, manage, and respond to environmental changes effectively.

Community Engagement and Advocacy

Successful environmental approaches involve active community engagement and advocacy. Recognizing the role of local communities in environmental stewardship, these approaches encourage participatory decision-making, empowering communities to contribute to conservation efforts. Advocacy at local, national, and international levels amplifies the collective voice for environmental protection, influencing policies and promoting sustainable practices.

Q5.b) Feminist theory in International Relations

Ans) Feminist Theory in International Relations: Empowering Perspectives

Critique of Patriarchy and Gender Bias

At its core, feminist theory in IR critiques patriarchal structures and inherent gender biases within traditional IR frameworks. It questions the historically male-centric narratives that have dominated the field, highlighting how these narratives have often marginalized women's experiences, perspectives, and contributions in the international arena.

Intersectionality

Feminist IR embraces the concept of intersectionality, recognizing that gender intersects with other social categories such as race, class, ethnicity, and sexuality. This intersectional approach acknowledges the unique experiences and challenges faced by individuals who exist at the crossroads of multiple identity markers, offering a more nuanced understanding of how power operates on various fronts.

Reconceptualizing Security

Feminist IR challenges traditional notions of security, expanding the concept beyond military threats to encompass broader issues such as economic inequality, environmental degradation, and gender-based violence. By highlighting the inseparable link between gender and security, feminist theorists advocate for comprehensive security frameworks that address the diverse needs and vulnerabilities of different populations.

Globalization and Transnational Feminism

Feminist IR engages with globalization dynamics, emphasizing the need for transnational feminist activism. It recognizes that issues such as human trafficking, labor exploitation, and environmental degradation are interconnected and require collective, global responses. Transnational feminism seeks to build alliances across borders to address systemic injustices and promote gender equality on a global scale.

Agency and Empowerment

Feminist IR underscores the agency and empowerment of women in international affairs. It challenges portrayals of women as passive victims and highlights their active roles as political leaders, peacebuilders, and agents of change. By amplifying women's voices and contributions, feminist theorists aim to reshape power structures and promote more inclusive and equitable decision-making processes.