Assignment Code: MPCE-022/ASST/TMA/2022-23

Course Code: MPCE-022

Assignment Name: Assessment In Counselling and Guidance

Year: 2022–2023

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

NOTE: All Questions Are Compulsory.

Section-A

Answer the following questions in 1000 words each. 3x15=45

Q1) Explain the meaning of Psychological Testing and discuss the types of Psychological tests.

Ans) In the discipline of psychological testing, samples of behaviour are used to evaluate psychological constructs, such as cognitive and emotional functioning, regarding a specific person. Psychometrics is the formal name for the science that underlies psychological testing. Samples of behaviour refer to observations of someone carrying out tasks that are typically defined in advance, which frequently refers to test results. The evaluator can compare the test subject's behaviour to the responses of a norm group by compiling these responses into statistical tables.

Written, visual, or spoken psychological tests are used to evaluate a person's cognitive and emotional functioning in both children and adults. It is "a standardised, objective measure of a sample of behaviour." A common method of measuring used to gauge traits, skills, personality, etc. is psychological testing. They have standards and are used to measure the quantifiable qualities.

Anastasi claims that a psychological test can be described as a sample of a person's behaviour taken under normal circumstances and graded in accordance with a predetermined set of guidelines that yield a numerical score. A single person can be evaluated and compared throughout one or more tests, and two or more people can also be evaluated and compared simultaneously. A psychological test is distinguished by a systematic administration, scoring, and interpretation process that is consistent across examiners and environments.

A psychological test is a tool created to measure latent variables, also known as unobserved constructions. The respondent is often required to complete a series of activities or problems during psychological testing, though this is not always the case. Psychological tests can closely resemble questionnaires, which are likewise intended to evaluate unobserved constructs, but they vary in that they ask for a respondent's peak performance as opposed to their normal performance in a questionnaire. A psychological exam must be dependable and valid in order to be useful.

Types Of Psychological Tests

The content and administration methods of the psychological exams vary. There are thus verbal and nonverbal tests, power and speed tests, group, and individual tests, and so on. Achievement tests, aptitude tests, mental ability tests, interest inventories, personality inventories, and other sorts of psychological testing are only a few examples.

1. Intelligence Test: IQ tests and accomplishment exams are both prominent norm-referenced assessments that claim to evaluate intellect. In these examinations, the subject is given a number of tasks to complete, and their responses are scored in accordance with well laid out standards. Following the exam, the results can be collated and contrasted with the responses of a norm group, which is often made up of individuals who share the same age or academic level as the subject being assessed. A sequence of tasks in an IQ test are often broken down into verbal, non-verbal, and performance assessments. Important IQ tests include the Raven's Progressive Matrices Test, Bhatia's Battery of Performance Tests of Intelligence, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, and Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales.

2. Tests of Interest and Aptitude: While aptitude tests are intended to gauge a client's ability in a particular sector, tests of interest evaluate a client's likes and dislikes. These are primarily employed in educational and career counselling. Strong Vocational Interest Blank and Kuder Preference Record are two examples of interest tests. Differential Aptitude Test and DBDA are two often utilised aptitude examinations.

3. Attitude Tests: An attitude test gauges how someone feels about a situation, someone, or something else. In marketing, attitude scales are used to identify consumer preferences for particular brands or products. Thurston Scales or Likert Scales are frequently used in attitude exams to measure particular items.

4. Tests of Achievement: Achievement tests gauge a person's proficiency in a particular subject. It evaluates the individual's knowledge and skill gains following the conclusion of a training or course. Standardized or informal achievement exams can be created by teachers. Achievement exams are useful for identifying a student's areas of strength and weakness and for gauging their performance over time.

5. Neuro-Psychological Tests: These assessments consist of activities that have been carefully created to measure a psychological function that is known to be connected to a specific brain region or neural pathway. They are often used to compare neuropsychological capacities between experimental groups or to measure impairment following an illness or accident known to impair neuro-cognitive functioning.

6. Personality Tests: Personality assessments rate the attitudes, feelings, behaviours, and thoughts that make up personality. These tests' outcomes can be used to detect a child's personality strengths and weaknesses as well as potential personality disorders. Rating scale or self-report measures, along with free response or projective assessments, make up psychological measurements of personality.

Objective Tests, i.e., Rating Scale or Self-Report Measure

These only accept true or false responses, or they only accept ratings using an ordinal scale. The MMPI, MCMI, and Child Behaviour Checklist are notable instances of objective personality testing. The NEO-PI, the 16PF, and the Occupational Personality Questionnaire are three examples of objective personality tests that can be created for use in organisations with prospective employees. These tests are all based on the Big Five Factor Model of normal personality.

1. Based on the idea that people tend to project their own unconscious sentiments into uncertain situations, projective tests aim to detect personality. The Rorschach test, in which participants identify each of ten ink blots, is an illustration of this. The House-Tree-Person Test, Robert's Apperception Test, Thematic Apperception Test, and the Attachment Projective are other projective tests.

Direct Observation Tests

The majority of psychological examinations use rating scales or free response questions, however psychological evaluations may also involve watching people as they carry out tasks. This kind of evaluation is typically carried out with families in a lab, at home, or with kids in a classroom. Clinical goals include establishing a baseline of a child's hyperactive or aggressive classroom behaviours prior to intervention or observing the dynamics of parent-child interactions to comprehend relational disorders. Research also makes use of direct observation techniques, for instance to investigate patterns of inter-behavioral interaction or to investigate the relationship between intrapsychic variables and certain target behaviours.

Q2) Describe theoretical approaches of counselling and elucidate Cognitive counselling approach.

Ans) The cognitive approach takes into account that people are rational beings. Humans are capable of both reasonable and irrational thought, as well as thinking mistakes. According to this perspective, how people perceive an experience, or an event affects how they feel and behave. Cognitive theorists include Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck, and Donald Meichenbaum. It is believed that the unproductive behaviour and emotional issues are the outcome of flawed thinking. Ineffective thinkers will concentrate on the drawbacks and dwell on those facts. Cognitive therapy was created by Aaron Beck, whereas rational emotional behaviour therapy was created by Albert Ellis.

Aaron Beck

Despite receiving psychoanalytic training, Beck was unable to convince anyone of Freud's theory of depression. He discovered that poor cognitive processing is the fundamental issue with depression. According to Beck's theory, many issues, including depression, have their roots in the "negative triad" of negative views about oneself, the outside world, and one's future. With the aid of this trio, the counsellor and client attempt to determine the causes of the issue.

Schema is a method of arranging ideas in your mind. For instance, we often hold the belief that "I should be perfect, and if I make a mistake, it means I've failed." Facts are distorted by cognitive biases. In other words, cognitive errors result in the incorrect understanding of the event. The six categories of cognitive mistakes are as follows:

1. Selective Abstraction: Here, the individual ignores other information in favour of concentrating on a small number of them. Let's say a mother throws her son a surprise party, and the son is upset about it. The son will make the mistake of ignoring the fact that his mother made an effort to plan a party in favour of focusing on the fact that only a few of his friends were invited, and that his mother did this to paint him in a negative light.

2. Dichotomous Thinking: Here, either-or thinking is used. In other words, the circumstances are entirely favourable or unfavourable.

3. Over Generalisation: This describes drawing a conclusion based on scant or no evidence.

4. Magnification: This refers to the overestimation of one event compared to its real occurrence.

5. Minimisation: Minimising an event's importance compared to what it actually is.

6. Arbitrary Inference: Drawing conclusions without any supporting data.

The adverse triadic effects on schema, the impact of schema on cognitive error, and the subsequent reversal impact. As a result, emotional disturbances get worse and worse. The following are the methods employed in this counselling:

1. Persuasion: In this, the customer is encouraged to think in a way that is more suitable for him.

2. Suggestion: The counsellor informs the client about choosing a specific course of action while also considering all of the client's available options.

3. Instruction: Instructions are provided in a very clear-cut and exact manner. The client is given extremely specific instructions on how to keep track of his daily activities and which ones he is expected to fulfil.

Through cognitive restructuring, the client experiences transformation. The client's description of the issue is the first step in this direction. This enables the counsellor to comprehend the client's mental processes. This evaluates whether the client is experiencing any unpleasant, dysfunctional, or unreasonable ideas that are interfering with their lives. These are explained to the client in the second phase. He is informed of this. The client and counsellor discuss more adaptive alternative patterns or structures in the following stage.

Alber Ellis

Albert Ellis proposed rational emotive behaviour in the year 1955. Epictetus, a Roman philosopher, had an impact on him when he said that "men are bothered not by things but by their perceptions of things." On the basis of this idea, he proposed REBT. With the aid of the ABCDE model, an attempt has been made to grasp the fundamental ideas and counselling procedure in this part. Ellis believed that when an event (A) has negative emotional effects (C), the individual may believe that these effects are a result of the event while, in reality, they are a result of his beliefs (B). Let's look at the definitions of these alphabets to make things clear.

1. A=Activating event

2. B=Beliefs

3. C=Consequences/ Conclusions

4. D=Dispute/Discussion/Debate

5. E=Effect of intervention

Explanation of ABC Model

Let’s start with example

The Activating Event: I attended a job interview but was passed over.

The Belief:

1. Irrational: I can't take this rejection; I'll never land a job and I'll constantly do poorly in interviews.

2. Rational: Rejection bothers me, it seems difficult, I should prepare better.

The Consequent Emotion:

1. Undesirable: Worry, sadness, and a sense of worthlessness

2. Desirable: Irritability, frustration, and perseverance

The Consequent behavioural

1. Undesirable: Declined to attend a job interview

2. Desirable: Ongoing job hunt

A person begins to perceive problems when their views are erroneous. Both sensible and irrational beliefs exist. Reasonless beliefs are not true. Ellis outlined 11 illogical universal beliefs, including "I must be loved and approved by everyone," "I should be perfect and capable," "It's easier to avoid problems than to face them," "Happiness is produced by events that are beyond my control," and more.

D is the intervention step. Counsellor engages client in discussion, debate, and confrontation to determine whether their beliefs are rational or true. Counsellor, in the aforementioned scenario, he will discuss by asking the client, "Why can't you stand this rejection?" Why won't you find a job? The client initially offers an illogical justification, but the counsellor presses for proof and educates the client about the truth and his flawed thinking.

Homework is given to practise rational beliefs, and it is discussed in the following session. Customers are thus assisted in gaining three insights:

1.  The cause of behaviour is neither the past or the present; rather, it is the product of reasonable or irrational beliefs.

2. Even if the problem started in the past, it is still there due of outdated thinking. Problems cannot be solved unless outdated doctrines are replaced by newer ones.

3. Change requires efforts and practise.

Through counselling at stage D, the E is the result of altering the belief system from illogical to rational. Client mood, behaviour, and cognition are all altered. He will now behave admirably, have more acceptable emotions, and be capable of reasonable thought.

Q3) Discuss the development and component of school guidance and counselling programme.

Ans) The following are necessary for developing and planning a guidance and counselling programme:

Need Assessment for Guidance and Counselling Programme

The difference between what is and what should be is what is known as a need. A rigorous procedure called needs assessment identifies the discrepancy between what is and what should be. Assessment of needs has the following goals:

1. To guarantee programme relevance.

2. To guarantee the participation of every employee.

3. To guarantee the program's success.

4. To decide on the aims and goals of the programme.

5. In order to enable programme evaluation.

You must first determine the needs of the kids before you can create guidance and counselling activities for use in the classroom. Bhatnagar and Gupta assert that the value of a need assessment survey is tripled. It utilises the psychologically sound approach of including all stakeholders in the design phase of the guidance programme, focuses attention on the precise objectives of a guidance programme, establishes a "beginning point," and establishes a "starting point". Remmis and Burt provide a few procedures for determining whether a school guidance programme is necessary. Below is a description of them:

 bCreating a committee is the first step in determining whether a guidance and counselling programme is necessary. Teachers, students, parents, administrators from the school, academics, and other individuals may be on the committee. This committee's primary responsibility is to determine the objectives of the school guidance programme.

Define Guidance Programme Goals: Following the formation of the planning committee, the members are required to identify and specify the precise objectives of the school guidance programme that result from the demands of the students and the institution. For instance, a counselling program's objective can be to deal with issues like teen drug misuse or smoking or to lower indiscipline among senior students.

1. Techniques for Assessing the Needs: The counsellor or school counsellor must decide on the best method to evaluate the needs. The methods listed below are frequently employed in need assessment. Depending on the situation, a counsellor may employ one or a mixture of the following techniques:

a) Use direct observation

b) Conduct survey using questionnaire

c) Use of psychological tests/ inventories

d) Consultation with informed persons

e) Interviews

f) Focus Group Discussion

g) Record and reports of studies on needs and Problems of students.

2. Administer the Tools: To acquire detailed information, the counsellor must directly administer the tools after choosing the tools and the sample.

3.Implement the Results: Implementing the findings from using the tools is the fifth phase in the need assessment process. The need assessment process aims to reach this stage, which aids in the implementation of guidance activities to address the expressed needs of all pupils.

4. Follow-Up: This is the final step in determining whether a guidance programme is necessary. The success of any program's follow-up is crucial to understanding how well it helps kids, parents, and teachers solve their problems. When planning the programme, this issue should also be taken into consideration.

Setting Up of A Guidance Committee

Since it is believed that guidance and counselling services are collaborative and team-based, you also need the support of numerous stakeholders before you can organise the programme. Consequently, you must establish a school guidance committee. The organisation of the advice programme, which is established in accordance with the features of the school, heavily influences the composition of the guidance committee. Members of the committee typically include the principal of the school, a few teachers, a few interested parents, representatives of the kids, and a few officials from local organisations like bankers, entrepreneurs, social workers, and industrialists.

Arranging Essential Infrastructure for Organising Guidance and Counselling Programme

The program's budget/finance, facilities, skilled guidance staff, and publicity are just a few examples of the required infrastructure.

1. Trained Guidance Personnel: The program's staff must receive training in order for the school guidance programme to be effectively organised. A full-time school counsellor, a teacher counsellor, or a career instructor are examples of trained counselling staff. A full-time school counsellor is a professionally trained individual, as opposed to a career teacher or teacher counsellor who is a subject teacher with Guidance and Counselling training.

2. Arranging Budget/Finance: Before you design a school guidance and counselling programme, the availability of funding is crucial. You should be aware of the costs associated with planning a guidance activity. Budget constraints may exist in government institutions, but government officials are now cognizant of the importance of offering guidance and counselling to kids.

3. Facilities for Organisation of Activities: Whether you plan to conduct individual or group advice and counselling sessions, you must have the bare minimum of amenities, including room, furniture, an armoire, a display board, or rack, etc. In addition to the aforementioned, you also require psychological exams, career literature on educational and training options, employment chances, government programmes, etc.

4. Publicizing the Guidance and Counselling Programme: Making publicity for guiding and counselling activities is essential since doing so will guarantee that many people will participate. As a counsellor, it is your responsibility to disclose the date, time, location, as well as the goals and results of any counselling or advising sessions.

5. Support from Parents and Community Members: You should include parents and community members in your school's guidance and counselling programme. You could enlist the assistance of parents who are specialists in various fields to enlighten the pupils of the jobs and careers that are accessible in their area.

6. Develop Guidance Curriculum and Calendar of Guidance and Counselling Activities: As a manual and a plan for providing guidance and counselling services, a counsellor may create a written guidance curriculum. The creation of a guiding curriculum aids students in acquiring, growing, and displaying competencies in the areas of academic, professional, and personal development.

A guidance calendar makes it easier for planners to efficiently handle guidance tasks while taking into account the seasons of the year when specific tasks are most effective. Additionally, it guarantees the efficient use of resources. Date, time, target audience, guidance service activity, and people and material resources should all be mentioned while creating the calendar. The school staff, parents, and community members ought to be involved in creating the calendar because guidance is a joint function, as we all know.

You can specify the targeted domains goals, grade level activities, dates, people participating, resources to be employed, and approximate budget by using the guidance calendar. You might ask the administration of the school to post or publish a weekly or monthly schedule of events so that students, faculty, parents, and community members are aware and can participate as much as possible. Making an analysis of the time to be used for the guidance and counselling programme would be aided by having a master calendar of activities.

Section-B

Answer the following questions in 400 words each. 5x5=25

Q1) Differentiate between Psychological Assessment And Psychology Testing.

Ans) Anastasi and Urbina defined a psychological test, a term closely related to assessment, as an objective and standardised evaluation of a sample of behaviour. According to Cronbach's definition, a test is a methodical process for observing behaviour and describing it with the help of numerical scales or predetermined categories. There are some similarities among all definitions of evaluation, as these two comparable definitions imply. They all talk about utilising some sort of measurement or getting a measure. Counsellors frequently want a hint of amount when conducting assessments.

Simply put, a lot of exam questions concern whether there is a lot of or a tiny bit of "something." Counsellors are frequently fascinated by human traits like emotions, intelligence, personality traits, self-esteem, and aptitudes. Nevertheless, it is impossible to directly measure these constructions. It's crucial to keep in mind that speaking and answering a questionnaire are both behaviours. Similar to psychological testing, psychological assessment typically comprises a more thorough evaluation of the person. The process of psychological assessment entails combining data from several sources, including personal interviews, testing of normal and abnormal personality, aptitude or intelligence tests, tests of interests or attitudes, and tests of ability or intellect.

Background data about one's personal, professional, or medical history is gathered, for example, through documents or during interviews with one's parents, spouse, instructors, former therapists, or doctors. One of the data sources used throughout the assessment process is a psychological exam; typically, multiple tests are performed. There is a distinction between the evaluation and testing conducted by AERA, APA, and NCME. It defines assessment as a more general phrase referring to a procedure that combines test results with data from other sources, such as those at schools, hospitals, and other institutions.

Difference between Psychological Assessment and Psychological Testing

Q2) Explain issues in assessment.

Ans) Human behaviour is a complex phenomenon. Therefore, assessment of human behaviour is equally complex. Assessment often tries to find out the magnitude or quantity of a particular aspect/factor/problem in the client.

1. Time and Effort Required in Assessment: Counsellor needs to carefully consider several technical, administrative, and practical matters. This requires the counsellor to spend time and effort to understand the various related aspects of assessment and make a conscious decision about using a particular test. The counsellor should weigh all the costs and benefits with an aim of ultimately increasing the effectiveness of the assessment procedure leading to success in counselling.

2. Use of Technology in Assessment: Computer administration of psychological assessment clearly saves time of the counsellor, but the results of such test may not give reliable and valid scores. Some psychologist believe that the computerized assessment has not been sufficiently validated, whereas others fear that the increasing use of computer in counselling will increase the risk to the confidentiality of client’s information.

3. Misuse or Overuse of Tests: A single test cannot be expected to be valid in all situations and for all groups of people. A test generally is developed to measure specific characteristics or to predict specific performance criteria for a particular group. Hence one needs to be careful to choose an appropriate test for the assessment of a client. Overuse of test also is a serious concern which we need to be aware of.

4. Indirectness of the Measurement: Most of the psychological assessment and test are indirect e.g., a school counsellor wants to measure the mental ability or intelligence of the students of a particular class. Now intelligence cannot be seen directly. The counsellor, therefore, depends on the assessment which includes a sample of behaviour representative of an intelligent act.

5. Incompleteness of Measurement: Since only one dimension of behaviour is assessed at a time, it does not give a comprehensive picture of the whole behaviour. The connectedness among the various strands of behaviour is missing which may lead to a less clear understanding of the concerned client. For this there is a need to understand the client’s situation from a total perspective and accordingly decide on which aspects need to be assessed.

6. Safety of Testing Material: All materials used in the assessment process, whether paper-and-pencil or computer-based, must be kept secure. Lack of security may result in some test takers having access to test questions beforehand, thus invalidating their scores. To prevent this, test administrators should, for example, keep testing materials in locked rooms or cabinets. This is especially required in situations like school setting or organisational setting where assessment usually forms a part of guidance activities or human resource activities.

Q3) Discuss the basic issues in case history and elucidate format of case history taking.

Ans) Each scientific discipline approaches history in a unique way. A lawyer would approach a case history differently than a medical professional would. There is a specific case history structure for each field. This not only clarifies the situation as it currently stands but also aids in our comprehension of the triggers for the emergence of those symptoms. Through the process of collecting case histories, the background and etiological elements are learned.

Case History Taking (Format)

1) Identification Data

a) Name: This is vital, but in some circumstances we also need to reassure them that their identity will be kept private. The customer may occasionally be reluctant to reveal their identify. The clients do not wish to reveal their names because they might come from an elite or well-known family.

b) Sex: This contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the individual. Each gender is given a set of roles to fulfil. This is why this feature is significant.

c) Age: A person's age can help a clinician better grasp the developmental stage that person is going through. Each stage includes a task for development. The person's age helps us comprehend how that person has developed.

d) Education: The person's education provides information about their exposure to the outside, literate world. This is significant because, as clinicians, we might want to recommend certain readings as references.

e) School or Institution: A person's initial social encounter takes place at school. He is aware of the institutions' regulations and their requirement that he abide by them. In that light, school-related information is crucial.

2) Problem Stated by

a) Client: It's crucial to understand how the client feels about the issue. The issue could not appear the same to others as it does to the client.

b) Problem Duration: The specifics of the issues are taken into consideration. the beginning and length of the issue. Most of the time, a stressor comes first, then the issue.

c) Problem Intensity: The type of therapy that will be employed will depend on how severe the problem is. This also conveys to us the client's level of urgency regarding the intervention.

3) Personal History

a) Development: The informant is questioned regarding the specifics of the birth.

b) History of the School: The child enters this institution for the first time in his life.

c) Medical History: This is not just to make sure that the symptoms have no medical cause, but also to better understand the person's limitations.

d) Social History: A person's social evolution reveals a lot about them. How closely the client is connected to the neighbourhood.

e) Emotional Maturity: This factor reveals a person's ability to handle a problem when a counsellor suggests it.

f) Premorbid Personality: This refers to a person's personality before to the real commencement of the client's difficulties.

g) The Clients’ Fantasy Life: One such area where information is gathered is the clients' fantasies.

Q4) Explain the Roger’s theory of Personality.

Ans) Creating a theory of personality was not Rogers' first priority. The theory of personality known as the client centred theory or, later, the person-centred theory of personality, was developed as a result of Rogers' clinical practise, research, and the personality changes that happened as a result of his therapy.

The Developing Infant

When a child is born, it enters the world with its unique set of experiences. The infant's reality is what it perceives. The development of the child depends on its organismic experience. The primary motivator in this organismic universe is a propensity toward self-actualization. The infant is forced to act in its own best interests by an innate propensity. When a youngster is hungry, it will cry in an effort to obtain nourishment. The infant has the innate ability to give events both positive and negative value, in addition to self-actualization. Positive values are assigned whenever experiences seem to improve an organism.

The Self Concept

The ability to distinguish between one's own experiences and those of others develops as a youngster becomes older. The process by which a child's experience and perception shape their self-concept is influenced by their need for favourable respect. Positive respect is therefore equally as vital for the individual as the organismic requirement because it also influences how people behave. In other words, the individual must determine whether the specific behaviour being displayed satisfies the organismic demand and gain the approval of others.

Condition of Worth

It is well knowledge that a child needs their parents' love, care, nurturing, affection, and approval in order to satisfy its own demands for positive self-regard, however there are situations when an organismically required behaviour conflicts with the need for positive regard. Because of their own desires for self-actualization and diverse value systems, parents do not approve such organismic behaviour. In such a conflicting circumstance, the infant begins to distinguish between its own experiences that are deserving of favourable respect and those that are not. He occasionally feels that his own organismic experiences work against him.

Fully Functioning Person

The idea of a fully functioning individual is the second crucial element of Rogers' theory of personality. This describes a person whose actions are entirely consistent with their tendency toward self-actualization. Such a person exhibits the traits listed below:

1. Open to experience

2. Accepting of one’s own feelings

3. Living in the present rather than past or future

4. Make free choices and act spontaneously

5. Trusting self

6. Creative and non-confirming.

This strategy is based on the personality theory known as self-theory. This implies that a person's actions are determined by how they perceive themselves. A person's response to challenges is influenced by how they view themselves in relation to their surroundings.

Q5) Describe the goal, role, and techniques of Rational Emotive Therapy.

Ans) Albert Ellis developed the fundamental principles of rational emotive therapy in 1962. Ellis made the claim that our thoughts affect our feelings and actions. He clarified in his ABC model that a person's belief systems determine their emotional symptoms or effects. in relation to specific triggering experiences or occasions. An individual's belief system might be either irrational or sensible. While irrational thought leads to dissatisfaction and non-productivity, causes a variety of emotional difficulties, and prevents people from attaining their goals and purposes in life, rational belief and behaviour are seen as useful and possibly fruitful.

Goals of RET

By reorganising one's belief system and self-evaluation, particularly with regard to the irrational shoulds, musts, and oughts’ that inhibit a good feeling of self-worth and an emotionally fulfilling existence, rational emotive counselling aims to reduce or eliminate irrational behaviour.

Role of the RET Counsellor

Counsellors that use the RET approach are proactive and forthright. They show the clients the connections between their thoughts, feelings, and actions. In addition to agreeing on homework assignments that assist the client in overcoming their irrational beliefs, they actively challenge, provoke, and dispute the client's irrational beliefs.

Techniques of RET

The counsellor uses a range of cognitive, behavioural, emotive, and visual strategies to dispel the clients' irrational beliefs and increase their faith in a rational alternative.

1)Cognitive Techniques: Disputation Direct questioning, logical arguments, and persuasion are used in cognitive disputation. Direct queries may put the client under pressure to justify their beliefs by providing reasons. The client can discern between sensible and irrational thinking thanks to these questions.

a) Coping Self Statements: By developing coping self-statement rational beliefs are strengthened.

b) Reframing: Reframe negative experiences as disappointing, worrying, or uncomfortable instead of horrifying or intolerable. Making a list of a terrible event's good aspects is one variation of this process.

2) Emotive Techniques

a) Rational Emotive Imagery: a type of mental exercise where the client imagines an event that would often upset them much and feels the improperly strong emotions associated with it before changing those sensations to more suitable ones.

b) Shame Attacking Exercises: Include fearful but innocuous acts like introducing oneself to a stranger, standing out by wearing loud clothing, and raising an absurd question during a lecture. This teaches the customer that everything doesn't have to be perfect, and that life still goes on even when mistakes are made.

3) Behavioural Techniques

a) Biblio Therapy: For this customer, reading a self-help book is required.

b) Activity Homework: The client completes tasks they had previously written off as unachievable.

Section-C

Answer the following questions in 50 words each. 10x3=30

Q1) Reliability and Validity of the test

Ans) An evaluation tool is often created for use with a particular group; it may not be appropriate for use with other groups. For instance, a test meant to assess adult work values might not be appropriate for use with junior high school kids. It's likely that a large portion of junior high school pupils lack the necessary occupational maturity for the assessment instrument to be useful, or that the test's reading level is inappropriate for junior high school kids. The tests should be suitable for the people the counsellor intends to administer them to, such as the client or the target population.

Q2) Types of Interview

Ans) Interviews are classified in different categories depending upon the procedure employed. Here we will study four important types of interview:

1. Structured Interviews: As the name implies the structured interviews are the ones in which interviewer asks a pre-planned set of questions in the same manner and sequence for each client.

2. Unstructured interviews: Unstructured interview is opposite to structured interview. The interviewer may have an idea about possible questions but depending upon the needs of the client, the order and sequence of questions can be changed, modified etc. by the interviewer.

3. Semi-Structured Interview: Many times semi structured method is used to minimize the disadvantages of both methods. It is a combination of structured and unstructured method. Certain questions are always asked, but there is freedom to add questions.

4. Intake Interview: The initial interview is the first meeting in which interviewer works with client to gather information about the problem with which the client has approached the counsellor.

Q3) Classification of tests

Ans) The tests are classified on the basis of certain criteria. Some categories are given below.

1. Individual and Group Tests: Individual tests are those in which the test administrator can use the test on only one person at a time.

2. Personality Tests: As the name suggests these are the tests that assess the personality of individuals.

3. Projective Tests: These are tests which try to unravel the unconscious material. In certain cases it may happen that the client is not aware of certain aspects of his own mind.

4. Achievement and Aptitude Tests: These are the tests which measure the person’s motivation to achieve and other aspects of achievement.

5. Intelligence Tests: The tests of intelligence measure different aspects of the intellect. There are different intelligence tests for different age groups.

6. Verbal and Performance Tests: Verbal test is that test which requires reading, writing and oral responses. Performance tests on the other hand emphasise on performing on some task rather than answer some questions.

Q4) Fully Functioning Person

Ans) The idea of a fully functioning individual is the second crucial element of Rogers' theory of personality. This describes a person whose actions are entirely consistent with their tendency toward self-actualization. Such a person exhibits the traits listed below:

1. open to new things.

2. acknowledging one's own emotions

3. living in the here and now as opposed to the past or future.

4. make independent decisions and take initiative.

5. faith in oneself.

6. inventive and unreliable.

This strategy is based on the self-theory of personality theory. This implies that a person's actions are determined by how they perceive themselves. A person's response to challenges is influenced by how they view themselves in relation to their surroundings.

Q5) Unconditional Positive Regards

Ans) The client will be accepted exactly as they are. There aren't any restrictions on that. No matter what ideas, feelings, or actions the client exhibits, the therapist must still view them favourably. For instance, the counsellor will accept the client as they are even if they have bad thoughts or are unable to articulate themselves clearly.

Q6) Ways to reduce risk and promote health

Ans) Primary prevention refers to measures taken to avert the development of disease. These behaviours consist of creating and upholding a healthful lifestyle and risk reduction for health.

Secondary prevention entails taking steps to identify disease when it is still in the early stages and therefore easier to treat. These behaviours consist of obtaining professional medical care, getting checked out, getting tested, and performing self-examinations.

Tertiary prevention entails taking steps to lessen the impact of an illness that has already struck, to limit its side effects, or to encourage recovery. These activities include properly managing a condition that has been identified.

Q7) Types of Guidance and Counselling

Ans) In the context of the scope of guidance discussed above, it would be appropriate to mention here that broadly we have three types of guidance and counselling such as educational guidance and counselling, career guidance and counselling, and personal-social guidance and counselling. A brief description about each of these is given below:

1. Educational guidance and counselling

2. Career guidance and counselling

3. Personal social guidance and counselling

Q8) Mental Status Examination

Ans) Since many years, psychiatry, clinical psychology, and psychiatric social work have employed the mental status evaluation primarily. Counsellors are now using it more frequently in professional contexts that need the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental problems. Information regarding the client's level of functioning and self-presentation is gathered using the MSE. The MSE can give counsellors a useful method for organising objective and subjective information to assist in diagnosis and treatment. It is typically administered at the initial or intake interview.

Q9) Planning for problem solving

Ans) The counsellor then moves on to developing a plan with the client to address the client's concern after concluding that all pertinent information regarding the client has been gathered, understood in the proper perspective, and the client has also developed awareness and gained insight into the need to address a specific problem.

Q10) Self-concept

Ans) The ability to distinguish between one's own experiences and those of others develops as a youngster becomes older. The process by which a child's experience and perception shape their self-concept is influenced by their need for favourable respect. Positive respect is therefore equally as vital for the individual as the organismic requirement because it also influences how people behave. In other words, the individual must determine whether the specific behaviour being displayed satisfies the organismic demand and gain the approval of others