Assignment Code: BPCC-111/TMA/ASST/2022-24

Course Code: BPCC-111

Assignment Name: Understanding Psychological Disorders

Year: 2023-2024

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

Assignment One

Answer the following descriptive category questions in about 500 words each. Each question carries 20 marks.

Q1) Discuss the biological approach to psychopathology.

Ans) The biological approach to psychopathology views mental disorders as stemming from physiological and neurological factors. It emphasizes that these conditions arise due to abnormalities or dysfunctions in the body, primarily focusing on the central nervous system, autonomic nervous system, and endocrine system. This approach asserts that mental disorders can be inherited or caused by pathological processes and are associated with structural and chemical imbalances in the body.

Four main categories elucidate the biological factors influencing psychopathology:

a)     Neurotransmitter and Hormonal Imbalances: Human behaviour relies on the intricate network of neurons transmitting information across the body. Neurotransmitters, chemicals facilitating communication between neurons, play a pivotal role. Imbalances in neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, serotonin, GABA, norepinephrine, and glutamate, are thought to contribute to various mental disorders. For instance, schizophrenia has been linked to dopamine abnormalities, while anxiety disorders are associated with imbalances in GABA. Hormonal imbalances, especially those concerning the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the secretion of cortisol in response to prolonged stress, are implicated in disorders like depression and post-traumatic stress disorder.

b)     Genetic Vulnerabilities: Genetics play a significant role in mental disorders, although they rarely act alone. Genetic predispositions contribute to vulnerability, interacting with environmental factors to influence the onset and severity of conditions. Disorders like Down syndrome, with an additional chromosome, display how chromosomal abnormalities can lead to intellectual disabilities and distinct physical features. Behavioural genetics use family history, twin studies, and adoption studies to discern the extent of genetic influence on mental disorders.

c)     Temperament: Temperament refers to stable individual differences in behaviour, often observed from early life. Genetic factors influence temperament, but environmental conditions also play a substantial role. Factors like prenatal experiences, birth difficulties, and socioeconomic status can shape an individual's temperament. Certain temperamental traits, such as fearfulness or irritability, can predispose individuals to anxiety or other disorders later in life.

d)     Brain Dysfunction and Neural Plasticity: Neuroimaging techniques, like CT and MRI, have contributed significantly to understanding brain structure and function. Abnormalities in brain structures or functions have been observed in various disorders. For instance, patients with schizophrenia often exhibit abnormalities in cerebral ventricles and frontal lobe density, suggesting neurodevelopmental origins of the disorder. Neural plasticity, the brain's ability to reorganize itself and form new neural connections, allows for adaptation to environmental changes and influences the onset and recovery from mental disorders.

The biological approach has significantly advanced our understanding of mental disorders by shedding light on the physiological underpinnings of these conditions. Medications targeting neurotransmitter imbalances have proven effective in treating certain disorders. For example, antidepressants like Prozac work by increasing serotonin levels in the brain. This emphasis on biological factors has also led to the development of neuroscientific techniques and innovative treatment approaches.

The biological perspective also faces criticisms and limitations. It tends to oversimplify complex mental health conditions by primarily attributing them to physiological factors, disregarding the significant role of psychological, social, and environmental influences in the development and maintenance of mental disorders. Moreover, the approach often focuses on symptom management rather than addressing underlying causes or prevention strategies.

Q2) Discuss the benefits and challenges of classification system of psychological disorders.

Ans) A proper diagnosis is crucial in understanding and treating mental disorders, affecting an individual's development across various domains of life. However, diagnosing these disorders faces challenges due to the stigma surrounding them and the shortage of mental health professionals. Therefore, establishing a correct diagnosis is essential for effective assessment and treatment.

The American Psychiatric Association (APA) defines a diagnosis as the identification of the nature of a disorder, forming the cornerstone for assessing and treating it. To ensure consistency among experts and researchers, a standardized classification system for psychological disorders is imperative. This system aids in correctly categorizing an individual's symptoms, lending credibility to the diagnosis.

Classification is the systematic organization of information into categories based on observations. Throughout history, various classification systems have existed globally. Hippocrates, in ancient Greece, classified mental disorders based on bodily humours, while Chinese medicine relied on the balance of yin and yang energies. In India, Ayurveda differentiated mental disorders based on three bodily humours—vata, pitta, and kapha.

The first modern classification system for mental disorders was developed by German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin. He categorized mental disorders into manic-depressive psychosis and dementia praecox (modern-day bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, respectively). Kraepelin's work laid the foundation for current classification systems like the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD).

Benefits of a Classification System:

a)     Concise Description: A classification system provides a succinct description of a disorder, allowing clinicians to understand and communicate the nature of the disorder efficiently. For instance, "generalized anxiety disorder" encapsulates the disorder's essence without extensive explanation.

b)     Configuring Symptoms: It helps in grouping specific symptoms into a recognizable pattern, aiding clinicians in identifying and understanding the disorder's manifestation.

c)     Treatment Guidance: It offers insights into the causes, course, and treatment of a disorder. For example, the presence of specific symptoms in schizophrenia can guide treatment decisions.

d)     Access to Support: A diagnosis based on a classification system allows individuals to seek support and accommodations from social institutions, schools, or legal entities, such as special education provisions for a child with dyslexia.

e)     Medico-legal Benefits: It assists in legal proceedings, guiding the court to deal with cases based on mental health acts. Insurance claims are also supported based on diagnoses from the classification system.

f)      Relief from Unknown Conditions: A diagnosis provides a sense of relief to individuals by recognizing that their condition is not unique and can be understood and treated.

Challenges of a Classification System:

a)     Diagnostic Bias: Clinicians' biases based on age, sex, race, or cultural differences may lead to over-diagnosis or under-diagnosis of certain disorders due to their unfamiliarity with diverse backgrounds.

b)     Stigmatization: Diagnostic labels may lead to stigma, overshadowing an individual's other qualities. Self-fulfilling prophecies can influence individuals' perceptions of themselves, affecting their behaviour and self-esteem.

c)     Reliability and Validity Issues: The classification system's effectiveness relies on its reliability (consistency of results over time) and validity (the system measures what it is supposed to). Issues like lack of clarity in criteria, overlapping disorders, and subjective judgment affect reliability and validity.

Assignment Two

Answer the following short category questions in about 100 words each. Each question carries 5 marks.

Q3) Explain the clinical picture of suicide.

Ans) A wide variety of psychological, behavioural, and emotional indications are included in the clinical picture of suicide prevention and treatment. There is a possibility that individuals will display symptoms of profound despondency, hopelessness, or feelings of being a burden. It is possible that they will retreat from social interaction, exhibit increasing agitation or irresponsibility, and express a desire to end their life or talk about death. There is also the possibility that a quick change from melancholy to peacefulness is a warning sign. These indicators, in conjunction with previous attempts at suicide or substance misuse, call for quick attention and action in order to prevent the individual from inflicting harm on themselves or losing their life.

Q4) What is autism spectrum disorder?

Ans) Autism spectrum disorder, also known as ASD, is a developmental illness that has an impact on a person's behaviour, social connections, and communication skills. As the phrase suggests, it encompasses a wide variety of symptoms, often known as a "spectrum." Individuals who have autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may have trouble recognising social cues, may have problems communicating verbally and nonverbally, may engage in repetitive behaviours, and may exhibit great interest in particular subjects.

The severity of symptoms also varies greatly from person to person, ranging from minor to severe. The quality of life of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can be significantly improved through early diagnosis and individualised interventions, such as behavioural therapies and support services. These interventions can assist individuals in navigating the challenges that they may encounter in their day-to-day lives.

Q5) Describe the different elements of clinical assessment.

Ans) A clinical assessment includes a number of components, including:

a)     Clinical Interviews: Gathering information through structured or unstructured conversations.

b)     Observation: Through the direct observation of behaviour in a variety of settings.

c)     Standardized Tests: Using validated tools to assess cognitive, emotional, or behavioural functioning.

d)     Self-Reports and Questionnaires: Gathering subjective information about symptoms and experiences.

e)     Medical and Family History: Examining personal and familial medical backgrounds to identify patterns or risks.

f)      Collateral Information: Obtaining details from sources like family members, teachers, or other professionals for a comprehensive view.

g)     Physical and Neurological Examinations: Assessing physical health and neurological functioning if necessary.

Q6) Describe the causal factor of attention deficits hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Ans) Frequently, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is caused by a confluence of elements, including those that are genetic, neurological, environmental, and social in nature. Predisposition is a crucial factor; attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is linked to specific genes that are associated with the control of neurotransmitters and the development of the brain.

Neurologically, differences in brain structure and function, especially in regions related to attention and impulse control, are observed. Environmental factors like prenatal exposure to toxins, premature birth, or maternal smoking contribute. Social factors such as family dynamics, early childhood experiences, and trauma can also influence ADHD development. The interplay of these factors often contributes to the manifestation of ADHD symptoms.

Q7) What is cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT).

Ans) Behavioral therapy, often known as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), is a method of psychotherapy that focuses on changing negative thought patterns and behaviours in order to treat mental health conditions. This study investigates the ways in which thoughts, feelings, and behaviours interact with one another. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) assists individuals in recognising and altering erroneous thought patterns and behaviours that contribute to emotional suffering or behaviours that are harmful. It consists of structured sessions in which therapists teach techniques for relaxation, coping skills, and solutions for problem-solving. The cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) approach seeks to alleviate symptoms associated with anxiety, depression, phobias, and other mental health conditions by challenging and altering negative thought processes. This approach also aims to promote more adaptive thinking patterns and healthier behaviours.

Q8) What are the five types of specific phobias defined by DSM-5?

Ans) Specific phobias are broken down into five primary categories in the DSM-5, which are as follows:

a)     Animal Type: Fear or avoidance of animals or insects.

b)     Natural Environment Type: Fear related to certain natural environments or situations like heights, storms, water bodies, or darkness.

c)     Blood-Injection-Injury Type: Fear of blood, injury, or medical procedures, often leading to fainting or a vasovagal response.

d)     Situational Type: Fear of specific situations or activities, like flying, driving, or enclosed spaces.

e)     Other Type: Includes phobias not falling into the above categories, such as fear of choking, loud sounds, or contracting an illness.