Assignment Code: BEGC-107/TMA/2024-25 Course Code: BEGC-107 Assignment Name: British Poetry and Drama - 17th & 18th Century Year: 2024-2025

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Section A 

1. Write short notes on any four of the following. 20 

a) Metaphysical Poetry 

Ans) Metaphysical poetry is a genre of 17th-century English poetry that explores complex ideas through elaborate metaphors, intellectual themes, and a conversational tone. The term "metaphysical" was first coined by poet and critic Samuel Johnson to describe poets like John Donne, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert, and Henry Vaughan. 

Metaphysical poets are known for their use of conceits—extended metaphors that compare two vastly different things in surprising, thought-provoking ways. For example, in John Donne’s famous poem "The Flea," the act of a flea biting is used as an analogy for love and union. These poets also address themes of love, religion, mortality, and human existence, often intertwining spiritual and physical concepts. 

What sets metaphysical poetry apart is its intellectual rigor and philosophical depth. The poems often challenge readers to think deeply about abstract ideas, employing paradoxes and questioning accepted norms. Unlike the more conventional, decorative poetry of earlier eras, metaphysical poetry is marked by a conversational tone, wit, and directness. While sometimes criticized for being too obscure or academic, this style greatly influenced later poets and remains an essential part of English literary history. 

b) Heroic couplet 

Ans) A heroic couplet is a pair of rhymed lines written in iambic pentameter, often used in epic and narrative poetry. The term "heroic" comes from its association with classical heroic and epic subjects, though it was also used in more varied poetic forms. Each line in a heroic couplet consists of ten syllables, with five iambic feet (an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one). 

The use of heroic couplets became especially prominent in 17th- and 18th-century English poetry, popularized by poets like Geoffrey Chaucer, John Dryden, and Alexander Pope. Alexander Pope, in particular, perfected the form in works like "The Rape of the Lock" and "An Essay on Criticism," using it to combine elegance with satire and philosophical argument. 

Heroic couplets are known for their clarity, balance, and capacity to express complex ideas concisely. The form's rigid structure often allows for a neat, closed sense of resolution or insight within the two lines. Though often used for serious and formal subjects, it is also flexible enough to convey wit, irony, and humor, as seen in many satirical works of the period. 

c) Pastoral Elegy 

Ans) A pastoral elegy is a form of poetry that mourns the loss of a person, typically presented in the idealized, rural setting of the pastoral tradition. This form combines two literary modes: the elegy, which is a poem of mourning or lament, and pastoral poetry, which celebrates the simplicity and beauty of rural life, often featuring shepherds and a tranquil landscape. 

The pastoral elegy originated in ancient Greek and Roman poetry, with poets like Theocritus and Virgil establishing its conventions. One of its key features is the use of shepherds as the main characters, with the deceased often being represented metaphorically as a shepherd or a figure in harmony with nature. The setting is idyllic, emphasizing a serene and natural world that contrasts with the grief of the poet. 

In English literature, one of the most famous examples is John Milton's "Lycidas," written in memory of his friend Edward King. The poem follows traditional conventions, such as the invocation of the muses, references to nature's mourning, and the eventual consolation that the deceased has found peace. 

The pastoral elegy serves as a means for poets to reflect on death and loss while simultaneously celebrating the beauty and continuity of life through the natural world. 

d) Mock Epic 

Ans) A mock epic (or mock-heroic poem) is a form of satire that imitates the style and conventions of a traditional epic but applies them to trivial or mundane subjects. It uses the grandeur, serious tone, and elevated language typical of epic poetry—such as works by Homer or Virgil—to exaggerate and ridicule the subject matter, often highlighting human folly, social customs, or trivial events. 

One of the most famous examples of a mock epic is Alexander Pope's "The Rape of the Lock". In this poem, Pope humorously elevates a petty social incident—the cutting of a woman’s lock of hair—by describing it with the same seriousness as a heroic battle. The poem includes all the epic conventions such as invoking a muse, grand battles (in this case, a card game), and supernatural elements (sylphs and gnomes), making the trivial event seem absurdly significant. 

The mock epic became particularly popular in the 17th and 18th centuries, allowing writers to critique social norms, politics, and human behavior in a humorous way. By contrasting the lofty tone of epic poetry with insignificant events, these works effectively exposed the ridiculousness of the subjects they portrayed. 

Section B 

Attempt any four questions. All questions carry equal marks. 

2. Explain with examples, the mock-heroic elements in Mac Flecknoe. 

Ans) John Dryden’s Mac Flecknoe is one of the finest examples of a mock-heroic poem in English literature. Written in 1678, the poem satirizes the poet Thomas Shadwell, portraying him as the rightful successor to Richard Flecknoe, a minor poet. Through exaggerated language and epic conventions, Dryden humorously mocks Shadwell’s lack of talent, using the style of classical epics to elevate his ridicule. 

The poem opens with the grand declaration that “All human things are subject to decay,” immediately invoking the serious, formal tone typical of epic poetry. However, instead of a heroic or divine figure, we are introduced to Flecknoe, the reigning “monarch” of dullness, and the poem quickly becomes clear as a mock-heroic work. The tone mimics the lofty style of epics such as Virgil’s Aeneid and Milton’s Paradise Lost, but instead of presenting a hero, Dryden describes Flecknoe as a king who chooses Shadwell as his heir to the throne of bad poetry. 

One of the major mock-heroic elements in Mac Flecknoe is the exaggerated comparison between the epic tradition of great, wise rulers and the incompetent Flecknoe and Shadwell. Flecknoe is portrayed as a ruler of a vast kingdom, but this “kingdom” is one of dullness, where mediocrity reigns supreme. Shadwell’s appointment as heir is described with the same gravitas and ceremony as if he were inheriting a great empire. The language used, however, makes it clear that this "empire" is one of foolishness and incompetence. For example, Flecknoe’s vast experience in writing poor poetry is praised in a mock-heroic manner: “Sh—— alone, of all my sons, is he / Who stands confirmed in full stupidity.” 

The setting of Shadwell’s coronation also uses mock-heroic conventions. Flecknoe’s kingdom is described as a desolate, run-down place symbolic of intellectual barrenness. His throne is compared to a dilapidated monument to stupidity. The coronation ceremony, which in a real epic would be grand and significant, becomes a parody. Shadwell is crowned in a farcical manner, with fragments of literary failures falling around him, symbolizing his lack of true talent. 

Another significant mock-heroic element is the use of allusions to classical epics. Dryden references the great Roman poet Virgil and the structure of classical epics, but instead of celebrating noble acts, he diminishes the grandeur associated with these works. Shadwell, the anti-hero, is ironically elevated to epic status, though Dryden clearly views him as a figure of mediocrity. 

3. Discuss The Duchess of Malfi as a tragedy of transgression. 

Ans) John Webster’s The Duchess of Malfi is a powerful tragedy that explores themes of power, corruption, and transgression, focusing on the Duchess’s defiance of social norms and her ultimate downfall. Set in a world dominated by male authority and rigid societal expectations, the play presents a tragic narrative of a woman’s transgression against the constraints imposed on her, which leads to her tragic end. 

The central transgression in the play is the Duchess’s secret marriage to her steward, Antonio, which defies the conventions of her class and gender. As a widow of noble birth, she is expected to remain under the control of her brothers, Ferdinand and the Cardinal, who view her body and status as extensions of their own power. Her decision to marry a man of lower rank in secret is an act of defiance that breaks the boundaries of patriarchal and aristocratic norms. The Duchess’s marriage, therefore, represents a transgression not only of societal rules but also of the rigid power structures that seek to control her freedom and autonomy. 

Ferdinand and the Cardinal see the Duchess’s actions as a threat to their power and honor, viewing her sexual independence as a form of rebellion. Their obsessive need to control her leads to extreme violence and cruelty, as they seek to punish her for what they see as a violation of family honor. Ferdinand’s incestuous obsession with his sister highlights the extent to which her body is viewed as a site of patriarchal control. His rage and madness culminate in the brutal murder of the Duchess and her children, an act that symbolizes the tragic consequences of her transgression. 

In a broader sense, the tragedy of the play also extends to the moral and ethical transgressions of the characters around the Duchess. The corrupt and manipulative actions of Ferdinand and the Cardinal represent a breakdown of moral order. Their abuse of power and cruelty create a world where justice is impossible, further deepening the tragedy. The Duchess herself, despite her strength and resilience, is ultimately powerless against the malevolent forces that seek to destroy her. 

The play’s depiction of transgression is not limited to the personal actions of the Duchess; it also critiques the corrupt societal and political systems that allow such brutal punishment to occur. The violence and moral decay within the play serve as a commentary on the broader dysfunction of the society it depicts, suggesting that the tragedy lies not just in individual defiance but in the failure of society to support justice and virtue. 

4. Discuss the reasons for the rise of the novel form in the 18th century. 

Ans) The 18th century witnessed the rise of the novel as a dominant literary form in English literature. This development can be attributed to a variety of social, cultural, and economic factors that converged during this period, transforming the way literature was produced, consumed, and perceived. 

1. Middle-Class Emergence and Literacy Growth 

One of the most significant reasons for the rise of the novel was the emergence of a growing middle class. With the expansion of trade, industry, and urbanization, a larger, literate middle-class audience developed. This new readership sought entertainment and education that reflected their lives and interests. Unlike the aristocratic audience for poetry and drama, the middle class desired stories that were more relatable, focusing on everyday life, personal experiences, and moral issues. Novels, with their focus on individual characters and social settings, fulfilled this need. 

Simultaneously, there was a substantial rise in literacy rates during this period. More people, especially women, had access to education, which created a demand for new reading material. The novel, being longer and more narrative-driven, appealed to these new readers by providing stories that were both entertaining and instructional. 

2. Expansion of Print Culture 

The rise of the novel was also facilitated by the expansion of the printing industry. With advances in printing technology, books became more affordable, making literature accessible to a broader audience. Newspapers, magazines, and journals also became popular, promoting serialized storytelling, which was a precursor to the novel format. Writers could publish sections of their works over time, building suspense and maintaining reader interest. This format also made the novel more interactive with its audience.  Moreover, the development of circulating libraries in the 18th century allowed people who could not afford to buy books the opportunity to borrow them, further increasing the readership for novels. 

3. Changing Literary Tastes 

The 18th century marked a shift in literary tastes from the heroic and classical forms of earlier centuries toward realism and individualism. Readers were more interested in narratives that dealt with human nature, personal development, and the complexities of social life. The novel, unlike the epic or the allegory, allowed writers to explore characters’ psychological depth and the minutiae of daily life in a way that earlier forms did not.  Early novelists like Daniel Defoe (Robinson Crusoe), Samuel Richardson (Pamela), and Henry Fielding (Tom Jones) tapped into these interests. Their works often focused on ordinary people, domestic life, and personal morality, making the novel a perfect medium for exploring the human condition in an intimate and accessible way. 

4. Rise of Individualism 

The Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, individualism, and empirical observation, greatly influenced the content and form of the novel. The philosophical climate of the time promoted the idea that the individual and their personal experiences were worthy of exploration. Novels provided a vehicle to explore themes of personal identity, self-reliance, and moral development, which resonated with the values of the age. 

  Section C 

Attempt any two questions. All questions carry equal marks. 

 8. Differentiate between Classicism and Romanticism, giving examples.   

Ans)  

9. Do you agree that Lycidus is an example of pastoral elegy? 

Ans) Yes, Lycidas by John Milton is a quintessential example of a pastoral elegy. Written in 1637 to mourn the untimely death of Milton’s friend, Edward King, Lycidas follows the conventions of the pastoral elegy while also offering deeper philosophical reflections on life, death, and immortality. Pastoral elegies traditionally present a rural setting, often featuring shepherds and an idealized version of nature, and Lycidas adheres to these conventions, but with Milton’s own distinctive voice and innovations. 

In Lycidas, Milton sets the poem in a pastoral world, using shepherds as symbolic figures. The deceased, Edward King, is represented as Lycidas, a shepherd who tended his flock but met an untimely death by drowning. This aligns with the tradition of pastoral elegy, where shepherds represent purity and simplicity, and their deaths symbolize loss of innocence and pastoral harmony. Milton invokes the classical elements of pastoral poetry, calling upon the muses and incorporating mythological references to create a heightened, idealized world. 

The poem also conforms to the pastoral elegy’s focus on nature’s response to death. Nature itself is depicted as mourning Lycidas; the flowers, water, and nymphs all grieve his passing. For instance, the rivers and the sea are personified as lamenting the loss of Lycidas, emphasizing how the natural world shares in the sorrow of human death. This deep connection between nature and human emotion is typical of the pastoral elegy form. 

However, Lycidas is not just a simple mourning poem; Milton uses the pastoral setting to raise profound theological and philosophical questions. He questions the fragility of life, especially for someone so young and virtuous, and contemplates the nature of fame and immortality. In a break from traditional pastoral elegies, which often remain focused on earthly mourning, Milton introduces a Christian resolution by asserting that Lycidas is not truly lost but has ascended to Heaven. This shift from pagan to Christian consolation is significant and highlights Milton’s religious views, as he presents the idea that divine judgment offers a sense of eternal peace beyond mortal suffering. 

While adhering to the conventions of pastoral elegy, Milton also uses Lycidas to reflect on broader issues of faith, divine justice, and the poet’s role in society. Thus, Lycidas stands as a classic example of a pastoral elegy, blending conventional form with Milton’s deeper spiritual and philosophical concerns, making it a richly layered work that transcends its genre while still fitting squarely within it.