Assignment Code: BANC 131/ASST/TMA/2023-2024

Course Code: BANC-131

Assignment Name: Anthropology and Research Methods

Year: 2023-2024

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

Assignment – I

Answer the following in about 500 words each.

Q1) Define anthropology and discuss its scope briefly.

Ans) Anthropology, encompassing four sub-branches—social-cultural anthropology, biological anthropology, archaeology, and linguistic anthropology—embodies a holistic approach towards understanding human existence. Although an individual typically specializes in one branch during advanced studies, the discipline requires comprehensive knowledge across all areas. Eric Wolf aptly describes anthropology as a bridge between various subjects rather than a standalone field, integrating history, literature, natural and social sciences.

Core Interests of Anthropology:

a)     Human Evolution and Variation: Anthropologists delve into the origin and evolution of the human species, examining how environmental factors shape cultures and impact human development. They seek to comprehend the diverse range of human variations and the reasons behind such variations.

b)     Culture and Society: Understanding the impact of culture on human behaviour and personality development is a significant aspect. Anthropologists explore the past to reconstruct civilizations, studying the emergence, and diversification of cultural practices.

c)     Tools and Methods: Anthropologists utilize a unique toolkit of research methodologies to dissect human existence. This toolkit helps in exploring human complexities, including biological, social, and cultural facets.

d)     Applied Anthropology: Beyond academia, applied anthropology applies anthropological theories and methods to solve real-world problems. This field focuses on addressing contemporary societal issues by employing anthropological knowledge.

Defining Anthropology:

The term 'anthropology' derives from 'Anthropos' (human) and 'logos' (science), yet its breadth extends beyond a mere study of humans. The American Anthropological Association defines it as the study of humans throughout history, drawing from social and biological sciences, humanities, and physical sciences. It emphasizes applying this knowledge to solve human problems, representing an integrative approach towards understanding humanity's full spectrum.

Holistic Approach:

Anthropology's holistic nature integrates biological, archaeological, and cultural dimensions. For instance, studies on the Indus Valley Civilization combined archaeological findings with genetic analyses of skeletal remains. This synthesis revealed potential insights into matrilocal residence patterns, challenging conventional societal structures and gender roles.

Comparative Method:

Anthropology historically employed comparison between cultures, initially leading to ethnocentric views of cultural superiority. However, this evolved into cultural relativism, emphasizing the understanding of each culture within its context. This shift promotes tolerance and appreciation of cultural diversity, a hallmark of anthropological study.

Methodologies:

Fieldwork, a fundamental method in anthropology, involves immersion within communities to observe and understand their daily lives. Techniques like participant observation enable a deeper comprehension of social and cultural norms, acknowledging the discrepancy between stated and actual behaviours.

Evolving Scope:

Anthropology has expanded its scope over time. Urban anthropology explores cultural shifts in urban centres due to migration and development. Applied anthropology intervenes in societal issues, employing techniques like Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) to address community problems.

Anthropology in Business and Disaster Management:

Anthropologists apply their understanding of culture and society in business management by studying consumer behaviour, organizational culture, and market impact. Moreover, they contribute significantly to disaster management, focusing on reducing vulnerability and risks within communities.

Biological and Archaeological Anthropology:

The discipline also encompasses biological aspects such as human palaeontology, genetics, and primatology. Archaeological anthropology reconstructs ancient societies using artifacts and historical evidence.

Q2) Discuss the history of fieldwork and criticism of Arm chair anthropology.

Ans) The evolution of fieldwork in anthropology is a significant departure from the older armchair approach, indicating a shift from speculative thinking to firsthand empirical research. This shift is a significant step forward in the field. Armchair anthropology, which was prevalent in the 19th century, was characterised by scholars relying on existing texts, accounts from travellers, and museum collections to form theories about distant cultures without directly engaging with the people or their environments. This was done in order to formulate theories about distant cultures.

During that time period, the Eurocentric worldview was strongly ingrained in the field of armchair anthropology, which frequently contributed to the perpetuation of stereotypes and ethnocentric perspectives. The comparison of material culture, folklore, and linguistic evidence led to the development of evolutionary ideas by academics such as Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan, who are considered to be founding figures in the field. On the other hand, these armchair anthropologists were subjected to criticism. They were accused of developing hypotheses that were not supported by scientific evidence and frequently mirrored the prejudices of their own cultural backgrounds.

Anthropologists such as Franz Boas were among those who challenged the armchair tradition throughout the latter half of the 19th century and the early 20th century, which led to the shift toward fieldwork gaining traction. When it came to the people who were being researched, Boas emphasised the importance of direct observation and participation in their day-to-day life. His methodology, which is referred to as cultural relativism, was made with the intention of understanding cultures on their own terms, so eliminating ethnocentrism and cultural bias.

One of the pioneers of fieldwork methodology was Bronisław Malinowski, whose work in the early 20th century laid the foundation for modern ethnography. Malinowski conducted immersive studies in the Trobriand Islands, emphasizing the importance of participant observation to grasp the intricacies of social life. His detailed accounts of daily activities, rituals, and interpersonal relationships marked a departure from armchair speculation, providing a more nuanced and contextually rich understanding of cultural practices.

However, the shift to fieldwork was not without its challenges and criticisms. Some anthropologists argued that long-term immersion in a community might lead to subjective biases and an overemphasis on local perspectives. Others raised ethical concerns about the impact of the researcher on the studied community and the potential exploitation of Indigenous knowledge.

In response to these criticisms, later anthropologists, such as Clifford Geertz, introduced a more reflexive approach to fieldwork. Geertz emphasized the importance of understanding the researcher's role in shaping the interpretation of cultural phenomena. This reflexivity encouraged anthropologists to acknowledge their positionality, biases, and the potential impact of their presence on the communities they studied.

Even if there was a shift toward fieldwork, armchair anthropology did not fully disappear. When it comes to human cultures, there are some academics who believe that a combination of fieldwork and armchair theorising could produce a more thorough understanding of human societies. However, this strategy requires a balance, with theoretical insights obtained from armchair analysis being validated and enhanced through empirical field research. This technique may be found in the following sentence.

Assignment – II

Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.

Q3) Discuss the current fields of social anthropology.

Ans) Social anthropology, a vibrant and diverse field, has expanded its scope to encompass various contemporary areas of study:

a)     Political Anthropology: Examines power structures, governance, political systems, and ideologies within different societies. It explores how politics intersect with culture, economy, and social life.

b)     Economic Anthropology: Focuses on the cultural aspects of economic systems, trade, consumption patterns, and how economic practices shape social relations and cultural norms.

c)     Medical Anthropology: Studies the intersection of culture, health, and illness. It explores how cultural beliefs, practices, and social structures influence health outcomes, healthcare systems, and the experience of illness.

d)     Environmental Anthropology: Investigates the relationship between societies and their environments, including issues related to climate change, resource management, sustainability, and human-environment interactions.

e)     Urban Anthropology: Examines social life, culture, and community dynamics in urban settings. It explores issues such as migration, urbanization, social inequalities, and the impact of urban spaces on culture.

f)      Gender and Sexuality Studies: Focuses on understanding the social construction of gender, sexuality, and identity within different cultural contexts. It explores how societies conceptualize and negotiate gender roles and sexual identities.

g)     Digital Anthropology: Studies the impact of digital technologies on culture, communication, social relationships, and identity formation. It examines how technology shapes social practices and cultural norms.

h)     Globalization and Transnationalism: This article investigates the ways in which globalisation has impacted societies, cultures, economics, and identities. Transnational connections, communities of diaspora, and the shifting nature of borders and limits are among topics that are investigated in this documentary.

Q4) Briefly discuss branches of physical/biological anthropology.

Ans) In the field of physical and biological anthropology, there are multiple subfields that investigate different elements of human biology, evolution, and variety. These subfields include:

a)     Primatology: The study of primates, which include the closest relatives of humans, from a behavioural, biological, and evolutionary perspective is known as primatology. Primate social systems, genetics, and adaptations are all subjects of study in this field.

b)     Palaeoanthropology: Focuses on the study of human evolution through the analysis of fossil remains. It investigates the ancestral origins of humans, their evolutionary timeline, and the development of human traits.

c)     Human Genetics: Explores genetic variation and inheritance among human populations. It investigates how genes influence physical traits, diseases, and adaptations, shedding light on human diversity and evolution.

d)     Forensic Anthropology: Applies anthropological methods to analyse human skeletal remains in legal contexts. Forensic anthropologists assist in identifying unknown individuals, determining causes of death, and providing evidence in legal investigations.

e)     Bioarchaeology: Studies human skeletal remains recovered from archaeological sites. It investigates ancient populations' health, diet, lifestyles, and social structures by analysing skeletal markers and pathology.

f)      Human Biology: Focuses on the biological aspects of humans, including growth, development, adaptation, and variation. It examines physiological functions, genetics, and environmental impacts on human biology.

g)     Osteology: Concentrates on the study of bones, focusing on their structure, function, and identification. Osteologists analyse skeletal remains to understand anatomical variations, pathologies, and demographic information.

h)     Dental Anthropology: Studies dental remains to understand aspects of human evolution, diet, and health. Dental anthropologists analyse dental morphology, pathology, and wear patterns to infer information about ancient populations.

Q5) Describe the development of prehistoric researches.

Ans) Prehistoric research, emerging from textual limitations, gained traction in the 18th century, challenging established religious and scientific beliefs. The Enlightenment period and scientific revolutions, particularly in astronomy and geology, catalysed its evolution.

Early efforts by northern European antiquarians, like Richard Colt Hoare, focused on burial mounds due to the absence of literate civilizations. The discovery of chipped stone tools across Europe initially baffled intellectuals until John Frere in 1797 realized their human origin, a pivotal moment in prehistoric archaeology's inception.

The establishment of new museums in northern Europe during the 18th century significantly contributed to prehistory's growth. This period saw the birth of the Three-Age system for periodization based on accumulating prehistoric data.

France emerged as a key location for early Palaeolithic research, with Boucher de Perthes unearthing stone tools in the Somme Valley. Extensive excavations in Pyrenees and Dordogne in the mid-19th century reconstructed Upper Palaeolithic life. Significant findings, including Cro-Magnon and Neanderthal remains and rock art in Altamira, furthered understanding.

Expansion beyond France and Germany revealed Homo erectus in Indonesia, hominid species in Africa, and Neanderthal and Homo sapiens remains in Palestine. Radiometric dating broadened the research scope, enabling exploration into human species' origins.

With the establishment of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784, prehistoric studies in India experienced a period of great success. A number of significant finds, such as stone implements made by Robert Bruce Foote, marked the beginning of research into the prehistoric history of India. The prehistoric study conducted in India included phases of surveys, categorization systems for tools, and interdisciplinary collaboration, all of which were integrated with prehistoric studies conducted around the world.

Assignment – III

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each.

Q6) Types of Research design

Ans) Research designs encompass various types:

a)     Exploratory/ Formulative: Aims to explore new insights or formulate hypotheses when little is known.

b)     Descriptive: Provides in-depth details about cultures, groups, or situations, addressing who, what, when, where, and how.

c)     Diagnostic: Investigates the frequency of an event or its association, delving into the nature and causes of existing problems.

d)     Experimental/Hypothesis-Testing: Determines cause-effect relationships by manipulating independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables.

e)     Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal: Cross-sectional captures a snapshot of characteristics at a specific time, while longitudinal studies change over time, often used by anthropologists for in-depth, long-term research.

Q7) Observation

Ans) The practise of observation, which comprises paying close attention to and documenting happenings, conditions, or acts, is considered to be one of the most significant tools for conducting research. In this context, the terms "direct perception," "drawing attention to particulars," and "collection of data without the need for intervention" are all included. When doing observational studies, researchers pay close attention to the participants as they are in their natural environment. As a result of acquiring this knowledge, researchers in a variety of fields, including anthropology, psychology, and others, are able to develop a deeper appreciation for patterns, relationships, and ecosystems.

Q8) Applying anthropology to solve life problems

Ans) The application of anthropology extends to the resolution of real-world problems by gaining an understanding of cultural variety, the dynamics of society, and human behaviour. It provides insights into social structures, customs, and the requirements of the society, which helps in the process of issue solving. In order to produce solutions that are culturally responsive for a variety of issues, including healthcare, education, policymaking, and more, applied anthropologists collaborate with a wide range of organisations and conduct ethnographic research. Through the use of this multidisciplinary approach, cultural divides are bridged, which in turn helps to cultivate sustainable interventions and informed plans for the benefit of society.

Q9) Serology

Ans) Serology is the study of blood serum and other bodily fluids to identify antibodies, antigens, or other markers indicative of diseases or immune responses. It plays a vital role in diagnostics, examining immune reactions to infections, allergies, or autoimmune disorders. The identification of particular antibodies or antigens is the primary function of serological tests such as ELISA, Western blotting, and quick diagnostic assays. These tests play a crucial role in the detection of diseases such as HIV, hepatitis, and COVID-19.These tests contribute to the study of epidemiology, the comprehension of immunity, and the monitoring of the transmission of illnesses, which in turn influences the strategies and methodological techniques utilised in public health.

Q10) Excavation.

Ans) Excavation is a meticulous archaeological process involving systematic digging, uncovering, and studying artifacts, structures, or remains buried beneath the earth's surface. It is a key method to unearth and analyse historical or cultural remnants, revealing insights into past civilizations. Excavations follow strict protocols, documenting each layer and artifact's position to reconstruct historical context accurately. Through careful stratigraphy and cataloguing, archaeologists decipher ancient lifestyles, technologies, and societal structures. This method helps trace human evolution, settlements, rituals, and trade networks. When it comes to ethical considerations, preservation is given priority. This ensures that uncovered sites are disturbed as little as possible, which in turn enables future scholars to acquire additional knowledge.

Q11) Emic and Etic approach.

Ans) The emic approach involves studying a culture from within, focusing on insider perspectives, beliefs, and meanings, embracing the community's subjective viewpoints. Conversely, the etic approach observes a culture from an external, analytical viewpoint, applying objective, comparative, and universal principles to understand cultural phenomena. Emic studies delve into local interpretations, emotions, and context-specific understanding, respecting cultural intricacies. Etic perspectives offer cross-cultural analysis, aiming for broader generalizations and comparisons. Both approaches are complementary to one another, since they offer comprehensive insights into cultures. They complement one another by integrating inner views with exterior analysis, which results in a more in-depth comprehension of human behaviour, beliefs, and the structures of society.